Name of a Book About an Irish Family Living on Clybourn St in Chicago in the 50's

The history of African Americans in Chicago dates dorsum to Jean Baptiste Point du Sable's trading activities in the 1780s. Du Sable, the city's founder, was Haitian of African and French descent.^[1] Fugitive slaves and freedmen established the city's starting time black customs in the 1840s. By the late 19th century, the start blackness person had been elected to role.

The Peachy Migrations from 1910 to 1960 brought hundreds of thousands of africans from the S to Chicago, where they became an urban population. They created churches, community organizations, businesses, music, and literature. African Americans of all classes built a community on the South Side of Chicago for decades before the Civil Rights Movement, as well as on the West Side of Chicago. Residing in segregated communities, almost regardless of income, the Black residents of Chicago aimed to create communities where they could survive, sustain themselves, and have the ability to determine for themselves their own class in the History of Chicago.^{[ citation needed ]}

History [edit]

Ancestry [edit]

Jean Baptiste Bespeak du Sable was a Haitian of French and African descent.^{[ citation needed ]}

Although du Sable's settlement was established in the 1780s, African Americans would simply become established as a community in the 1840s, with the population reaching 1,000 by 1860. Much of this population consisted of escaped slaves from the Upper Due south. Following the cease of Reconstruction in 1877, African Americans flowed from the Deep S into Chicago, raising the population from approximately 4,000 in 1870 to 15,000 in 1890.^{[ citation needed ]}

In 1853, John A. Logan helped laissez passer a law to prohibit all African Americans, including freedmen, from settling in the land. Yet, in 1865, the state repealed its "Blackness Laws" and became the showtime to ratify the 13th Amendment, partly due to the efforts of John and Mary Jones, a prominent and wealthy activist couple.^[ii]

Peculiarly after the Ceremonious State of war, Illinois had some of the well-nigh progressive anti-discrimination legislation in the nation.^[3] School segregation was get-go outlawed in 1874, and segregation in public accommodations was start outlawed in 1885.^[3] In 1870, Illinois extended voting rights to African-American men for the commencement time, and in 1871, John Jones, a tailor and Hush-hush Railroad station manager who successfully lobbied for the repeal of the state'south Blackness Laws, became the beginning African-American elected official in the state, serving as a fellow member of the Cook Canton Commission. By 1879, John W. East. Thomas of Chicago became the first African American elected to the Illinois General Associates, showtime the longest uninterrupted run of African-American representation in any state legislature in U.South. history. After the Great Chicago Fire, Chicago mayor Joseph Medill appointed the city's kickoff black fire company of nine men and the commencement black police force officeholder.

Bang-up Migration [edit]

The blackness population in Chicago significantly increased in the early to mid-1900s, due to the Great Migration out of the S. While African Americans made up less than two percent of the metropolis'southward population in 1910, by 1960 the metropolis was nearly 25 per centum blackness.

As the 20th century began, southern states succeeded in passing new constitutions and laws that disfranchised almost blacks and many poor whites. Deprived of the right to vote, they could non sit on juries or run for office. They were bailiwick to discriminatory laws passed by white legislators, including racial segregation of public facilities. Segregated pedagogy for blackness children and other services were consistently underfunded in a poor, agricultural economic system. As white-dominated legislatures passed Jim Crow laws to re-plant white supremacy and create more restrictions in public life, violence confronting blacks increased, with lynchings used as extrajudicial enforcement. In improver, the boll weevil infestation ruined much of the cotton industry. Voting with their feet, blacks started migrating out of the Due south to the North, where they could live more freely, become their children educated, and become new jobs.^{[ citation needed ]}

Industry buildup for World War I pulled thousands of workers to the N, as did the rapid expansion of railroads, and the meatpacking and steel industries. Betwixt 1915 and 1960, hundreds of thousands of blackness southerners migrated to Chicago to escape violence and segregation, and to seek economic liberty. They went from being a mostly rural population to one that was by and large urban. "The migration of African Americans from the rural s to the urban north became a mass movement."^[four] The Great Migration radically transformed Chicago, both politically and culturally.^[5]

From 1910 to 1940, virtually African Americans who migrated northward were from rural areas. They had been chiefly sharecroppers and laborers, although some were landowners pushed out past the boll weevil disaster. After years of underfunding of public education for blacks in the South, they tended to be poorly educated, with relatively depression skills to utilise to urban jobs. Similar the European rural immigrants, they had to speedily adjust to a different urban culture. Many took reward of better schooling in Chicago and their children learned chop-chop. After 1940, when the 2nd larger wave of migration started, black migrants tended to be already urbanized, from southern cities and towns. They were the most aggressive, improve educated with more than urban skills to utilise in their new homes.

The masses of new migrants arriving in the cities captured public attention. At one bespeak in the 1940s, 3,000 African Americans were arriving every week in Chicago—stepping off the trains from the S and making their means to neighborhoods they had learned about from friends and the Chicago Defender.^[6] The Great Migration was charted and evaluated. Urban white northerners started to get worried, every bit their neighborhoods rapidly changed. At the same time, contempo and older indigenous immigrants competed for jobs and housing with the new arrivals, especially on the South Side, where the steel and meatpacking industries had the most numerous working-class jobs.

Ethnic Irish were heavily implicated in the gang violence and the rioting that erupted in 1919. They had been the virtually established ethnic group and defended their power and territory in the South Side against newcomers: both other indigenous whites and southern blacks. "Chicago was a focal point of the great migration and the racial violence that came in its wake."^[four] With Chicago's industries steadily expanding, opportunities opened up for new migrants, including Southerners, to find work. The railroad and meatpacking industries recruited black workers. Chicago's African-American paper, the Chicago Defender, fabricated the city well known to southerners. It sent bundles of papers south on the Illinois Primal trains, and African-American Pullman Porters would drop them off in Black towns. "Chicago was the most accessible northern city for African Americans in Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas."^[4] They took the trains due north. "Then between 1916 and 1919, 50,000 blacks came to oversupply into the burgeoning black belt, to make new demands upon the institutional structure of the S Side."^[4]

Segregation [edit]

Chicago'due south Black Belt, Apr 1941

In the 1920s, homeowner's discriminatory covenant practices were killed in land courts.^[3] The increasingly large black population in Chicago (40,000 in 1910, and 278,000 in 1940^[one]) faced some of the same discrimination in Chicago as they had in the South. It was hard for many blacks to find jobs and detect decent places to alive because of the competition for housing among different groups of people at a fourth dimension when the city was expanding in population and then dramatically. At the same time that blacks moved from the South in the Great Migration, Chicago was still receiving thousands of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe. The groups competed with each other for working-class wages.

Though other techniques to maintain housing segregation had been used, such every bit redlining and exclusive zoning to single-family housing, by 1927 the political leaders of Chicago began to adopt racially restrictive covenants.^[3] The Chicago Real Estate Board promoted a racially restrictive covenant to YMCAs, churches, women's clubs, PTAs, Kiwanis clubs, chambers of commerce and property owners' associations.^[3] At ane betoken, equally much every bit 80% of the urban center's area was included nether restrictive covenants.^[iii]

The Supreme Courtroom of the The states in Shelley v. Kraemer ruled in 1948 that racially restrictive covenants were unconstitutional, but this did not chop-chop solve blacks' issues with finding acceptable housing.^[3] Homeowners' associations discouraged members from selling to black families, thus maintaining residential segregation.^[three] European immigrants and their descendants competed with African Americans for limited affordable housing, and those who didn't go the house lived on the streets.

In a succession mutual to most cities, many center and upper-class whites were the offset to move out of the city to new housing, aided by new driver runway lines and the construction of new highway systems. Later arrivals, ethnic whites and African-American families occupied the older housing backside them. The white residents who had been in the urban center longest were the ones well-nigh likely to move to the newer, most expensive housing, as they could afford it. After WWII, the early white residents (many Irish immigrants and their descendants) on the South Side began to move away nether force per unit area of new migrants and with newly expanding housing opportunities. African Americans continued to move into the area, which had become the black capital of the land. The South Side became predominantly black, and the Black Belt was formed.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Social and economic conditions [edit]

Housing [edit]

Between 1900 and 1910, the African-American population rose rapidly in Chicago. White hostility and population growth combined to create the ghetto on the Southward Side. Nearby were areas dominated by ethnic Irish gaelic, who were especially territorial in defending confronting incursions into their areas by any other groups.^[1] Most of this large population was composed of migrants.^[one] In 1910 more than 75 percentage of blacks lived in predominantly black sections of the city.^[i] The eight or nine neighborhoods that had been gear up equally areas of black settlement in 1900 remained the cadre of the Chicago African-American community. The Black Belt slowly expanded equally African Americans, despite facing violence and restrictive covenants, pushed forward into new neighborhoods.^[seven] As the population grew, African Americans became more than confined to a delineated expanse, instead of spreading throughout the city. When blacks moved into mixed neighborhoods, indigenous white hostility grew. After fighting over the expanse, ofttimes whites left the area to exist dominated by blacks. This is one of the reasons the black belt region started.

The Black Belt of Chicago was the chain of neighborhoods on the Due south Side of Chicago where three-quarters of the city'due south African-American population lived by the mid-20th century.^[1] In the early 1940s whites within residential blocks formed "restrictive covenants" that served as legal contracts restricting individual owners from renting or selling to blackness people. The contracts express the housing available to blackness tenants, leading to the aggregating of blackness residents within The Blackness Chugalug, one of the few neighborhoods open up to blackness tenants.^[8] The Black Belt was an area that stretched 30 blocks along Country Street on the South Side and was rarely more than seven blocks wide.^[1] With such a large population within this confined area, overcrowding frequently led to numerous families living in old and dilapidated buildings. The South Side'south "black chugalug" also contained zones related to economic status. The poorest residents lived in the northernmost, oldest section of the blackness belt, while the aristocracy resided in the southernmost section.^[9] In the mid-20th century, as African Americans across the United States struggled confronting the economic confines created past segregation, blackness residents within the Blackness Chugalug sought to create more than economic opportunity in their community through the encouragement of local black businesses and entrepreneurs.^{[10] [1]} During this time, Chicago was the capital of Blackness America. Many African Americans who moved to the Black Chugalug area of Chicago were from the Southeastern region of the United states of america.

Immigration to Chicago was another pressure level of overcrowding, as primarily lower-form newcomers from rural Europe also sought inexpensive housing and working class jobs. More and more people tried to fit into converted "kitchenette" and basement apartments. Living conditions in the Black Chugalug resembled conditions in the West Side ghetto or in the stockyards district.^[four] Although in that location were decent homes in the Negro sections, the core of the Black Belt was a slum. A 1934 census estimated that black households contained 6.eight people on boilerplate, whereas white households independent 4.vii.^[xi] Many blacks lived in apartments that lacked plumbing, with only one bath for each floor.^[eleven] With the buildings so overcrowded, building inspections and garbage collection were below the minimum mandatory requirements for salubrious sanitation. This unhealthiness increased the threat of disease. From 1940 to 1960, the infant decease rate in the Black Belt was sixteen% higher than the rest of the city.^[xi]

Law-breaking in African-American neighborhoods was a low priority to the constabulary. Associated with problems of poverty and southern culture, rates of violence and homicide were high. Some women resorted to prostitution to survive. Both low life and middle-form strivers were full-bodied in a small surface area.^[i]

In 1946, the Chicago Housing Dominance (CHA) tried to ease the pressure in the overcrowded ghettos and proposed to put public housing sites in less congested areas in the metropolis. The white residents did not take to this very well, then metropolis politicians forced the CHA to keep the status quo and develop loftier ascension projects in the Black Belt and on the West Side. Some of these became notorious failures. Every bit industrial restructuring in the 1950s and later led to massive job losses, residents changed from working-form families to poor families on welfare.^[1]

Every bit of May 2016 violence within some Chicago neighborhoods prompted blackness eye-form people to movement to the suburbs.^[12]

Culture [edit]

Between 1916 and 1920, almost 50,000 Black Southerners moved to Chicago,^[4] which profoundly shaped the city'due south evolution. Growth increased even more speedily after 1940. In particular, the new citizens caused the growth of local churches, businesses and customs organizations. A new musical civilisation arose, fed by all the traditions forth the Mississippi River. The population continued to increase with new migrants, with the most arriving after 1940.

The black arts community in Chicago was especially vibrant. The 1920s were the tiptop of the Jazz Age, but music connected as the center of the community for decades. Nationally renowned musicians rose inside the Chicago world. Along the Stroll, a brilliant-low-cal district on Land Street, jazz greats like Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Cab Calloway, Bessie Smith and Ethel Waters headlined at nightspots including the Palatial Cafe.

The literary creation of Black Chicago residents from 1925 to 1950 was too prolific, and the urban center's Black Renaissance rivaled that of the Harlem Renaissance. Prominent writers included Richard Wright, Willard Motley, William Attaway, Frank Marshall Davis, St. Clair Drake, Horace R. Cayton, Jr., and Margaret Walker. Chicago was dwelling house to writer and poet Gwendolyn Brooks, known for her portrayals of Black working-class life in crowded tenements of Bronzeville. These writers expressed the changes and conflicts blacks found in urban life and the struggles of creating new worlds. In Chicago, black writers turned abroad from the folk traditions embraced by Harlem Renaissance writers, instead adopting a grittier way of "literary naturalism" to depict life in the urban ghetto. The archetype Black Metropolis, written by St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Jr., exemplified the style of the Chicago writers. Today information technology remains the most detailed portrayal of Black Chicago in the 1930s and 1940s.

From 2008 to the nowadays, the W Side Historical Society under the guidance of Rickie P. Brown Sr. began to document the rich history of the Due west Side of Chicago. Their research provided proof of the Austin community having the largest population of Blacks in the urban center of Chicago. This proved that the largest population of blacks are on its westward side, when factoring in the Most West Side, North Lawndale, Westward Humboldt Park, Garfield Park, and Austin communities also. Their efforts to build a museum on the due west side and continuing to bring sensation to Juneteenth as a national holiday was rewarded with a proclamation in 2011 by Governor Pat Quinn.^[thirteen]

Business organisation [edit]

Chicago's blackness population developed a form structure, composed of a large number of domestic workers and other manual labourers, along with a small, but growing, contingent of middle-and-upper-form business and professional elites. In 1929, black Chicagoans gained admission to urban center jobs, and expanded their professional class. Fighting task discrimination was a abiding battle for African Americans in Chicago, as foremen in diverse companies restricted the advancement of black workers, which ofttimes kept them from earning higher wages.^[9] In the mid-20th century, blacks began slowly moving up to better positions in the work strength.^[i]

The migration expanded the market for African-American business. "The well-nigh notable breakthrough in blackness business came in the insurance field."^[4] In that location were four major insurance companies founded in Chicago. Then, in the early 20th century, service establishments took over.^{[ clarification needed ]} The African-American marketplace on State Street during this fourth dimension consisted of barber shops, restaurants, pool rooms, saloons, and beauty salons. African Americans used these trades to build their ain communities. These shops gave the blacks a chance to plant their families, earn coin, and become an active role of the community.

Achievements [edit]

In the early 20th century many prominent African Americans were Chicago residents, including Republican and later Democratic congressman William L. Dawson (America's most powerful black politician^[1]) and boxing champion Joe Louis. America's well-nigh widely read black newspaper,^[1] the Chicago Defender, was published there and circulated in the South besides.

Later on long efforts, in the belatedly 1930s, workers organized across racial lines to grade the United Meatpacking Workers of America. By then, the majority of workers in Chicago's plants were black, but they succeeded in creating an interracial organizing committee. It succeeded in organizing unions both in Chicago and Omaha, Nebraska, the metropolis with the 2nd largest meatpacking industry. This union belonged to the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which was more progressive than the American Federation of Labor. They succeeded in lifting segregation of task positions. For a time, workers accomplished living wages and other benefits, leading to blue collar middle-class life for decades. Some blacks were as well able to move upwards the ranks to supervisory and management positions. The CIO also succeeded in organizing Chicago's steel industry.^[14]

Blacks began to win constituent office in local and land government. The first blacks had been elected to office in Chicago in the belatedly 19th century, decades before the Great Migrations.^[1]

Chicago is domicile to three of eight African-American United states of america Senators who take served since Reconstruction, who are all Democrats: Carol Moseley Braun (1993–1999), Erstwhile President Barack Obama (2005–2008), and Roland Burris (2009–2010). Chicago also elected the showtime mail service-Reconstruction African-American member of Congress, Oscar Stanton De Priest, in Illinois' 1st congressional district, which has continuously elected African-Americans to the office since De Priest's term. The Chicago area alone has elected 18 African Americans to the House of Representatives, more than any other state in the country.^{[ citation needed ]}

Recent decline [edit]

A recent written report from the Chicago Tribune said thousands of blackness families accept left Chicago in the past decade, lowering the black population by about x%.^[15] Politico reported that Chicago'due south in one case wealthy black customs has dramatically declined with the shuttering of many black-owned companies.^[16]

Notable people [edit]

Master Keef was born in Chicago. He accomplished fame in 2012 when he released his single "Love Sosa".

• Bernie Mac
• Michelle Obama
• Barack Obama
• Jesse Jackson
• Dick Gregory
• Dwyane Wade
• Derrick Rose
• Kanye W
• Tim Hardaway
• Anthony Davis
• Chance the Rapper
• Rhymefest
• Chief Keef
• Redd Foxx
• Sam Cooke
• Earth, Air current, and Fire
• R. Kelly
• Jennifer Hudson
• Shonda Rhimes
• Muhammad Ali
• Curtis Mayfield
• Minnie Riperton
• Louis Armstrong
• Muddy Waters
• Ida B Wells
• Emmett Till
• Lil Durk
• King Von
• Thousand Herbo
• Lil Bibby
• Juice WRLD
• Polo G
• Dreezy
• Cupcakke
• Buddy Guy
• Nat King Cole
• Harold Washington
• Lupe Fiasco
• Twista
• Common
• Chaka Khan
• Keke Palmer
• Noname
• Dantrell Davis

See also [edit]

• Chicago Black Renaissance
• Chicago State University
• Chicago Race Riot of 1919
• Peachy Migration (African American)
• Second Great Migration (African American)
• History of Chicago
• Political history of Chicago
• Racial segregation in the United states
• Demographics of Chicago
• Ethnic groups in Chicago
• Mexicans in Chicago
• Puerto Ricans in Chicago

References [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l 1000 n} "African Americans". Encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org . Retrieved September 23, 2017.
2. ^ Smith, Jessie (2017-11-27). Encyclopedia of African American Business: Updated and Revised Edition, 2nd Edition [two volumes]. ABC-CLIO. ISBN978-1-4408-5028-eight.
3. ^ ^{a b c d e f yard h} "Jim Crow Laws: Illinois". Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved May two, 2007.
4. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Allen H. Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto (1890–1920).
5. ^ "Frommer's". Frommers.com . Retrieved September 23, 2017.
6. ^ Nicholas Lemann, The Great Migration.
7. ^ Will Cooley, "Moving On Out: Black Pioneering in Chicago, 1915–1950," Journal of Urban History 36:4 (July 2010), 485–506.
8. ^ "Housing and Race in Chicago". Chipublib.org . Retrieved September 23, 2017.
9. ^ ^{a b} "Chicago: Destination for the Corking Migration", The African-American Mosaic, Library of Congress.
10. ^ Defender, Chicago (July 23, 2010). "Chicago: Destination for the Great Migration - The African-American Mosaic Exhibition - Exhibitions (Library of Congress)". Loc.gov . Retrieved September 23, 2017.
11. ^ ^{a b c} Hirsch, Arnold Richard (1998). Making the 2nd Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago 1940–1960. University of Chicago Printing. ISBN9780226342443.
12. ^ "Chicago'southward high murder rates drive exodus of blackness middle course." PBS NewsHour, May 15, 2016. Retrieved May 18, 2016.
13. ^ "Westside Historical Society continues making history". Austinweeklynews.com . Retrieved October xi, 2016.
14. ^ Paul Street, Paul. "The 'All-time Marriage Members': Class, Race, Culture, and Blackness Worker Militancy in Chicago's Stockyards during the 1930s." Journal of American Indigenous History (2000): xviii-49.
15. ^ "As the Blackness population continues to drop in Chicago and Illinois, few regret their motion: 'I accept peace'". Chicago Tribune.
16. ^ "The Demise of America's Onetime Capital of Black Wealth". Politico.

Farther reading [edit]

• All-time, Wallace. "Black Belt," in Encyclopedia of Chicago, 2007; p. 140.
• Best, Wallace D. Passionately Human being, No Less Divine: Faith and Culture in Black Chicago, 1915-1952. (Princeton University Press, 2007: ISBN 978-0-6911-3375-1, 2013)
• Cohen, Adam, and Elizabeth Taylor. American Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley-his battle for Chicago and the nation (2001, ISBN 978-0-7595-2427-9)
• Danns, Dionne. "CHICAGO HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS' MOVEMENT FOR QUALITY PUBLIC EDUCATION, 1966-1971" (PDF). Journal of African American History: 138–150.
• Dolinar, Brian (ed.), The Negro in Illinois. The WPA Papers, University of Chicago Press, cloth: 2013, ISBN 978-0-252-03769-6; newspaper, ISBN 978-0-252-08093-7: 2015. Produced by a special partition of the Illinois Writers' Project, part of the Federal Writers' Projection, one of President Roosevelt'southward Works Progress Administration programs of the 1930s, with black writers living in Chicago during the 1930s, including Richard Wright, Margaret Walker, Katherine Dunham, Fenton Johnson, Frank Yerby, and Richard Durham.

• Garb, Margaret. Freedom'due south Ballot: African American Political Struggles in Chicago from Abolition to the Great Migration. (University of Chicago Press, 2014, ISBN 978-0-2261-3590-8)
• Green, Adam. Selling the Race: Culture, Community, and Blackness Chicago, 1940-1955. (University of Chicago Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-2263-0640-7)
• Grossman, James R. Country of hope: Chicago, black southerners, and the swell migration (University of Chicago Press, 1991)
• Halpern, Rick. Downward on the Killing Floor: Blackness and White Workers in Chicago'due south Packinghouses, 1904-54 (Academy of Illinois Press, 1997).
• Helgeson, Jeffrey. Crucibles of Blackness Empowerment: Chicago's Neighborhood Politics from the New Bargain to Harold Washington. Chicago: University of Chicago Printing, 2014, ISBN 978-0-2261-3069-ix.
• Hirsch, Arnold Richard. Making the 2d Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago 1940-1960. (Academy of Chicago Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0-2263-4244-3)
• Kenney, William Howland. Chicago jazz: A cultural history, 1904-1930 (Oxford University Press, 1993)
• Kimble Jr., Lionel. A New Deal for Bronzeville: Housing, Employment, and Ceremonious Rights in Black Chicago, 1935–1955 (Southern Illinois University Printing, 2015, ISBN 978-0-8093-3426-i). 14, 200 pp.
• Knupfer, Anne Meis. "" Toward a Tenderer Humanity and a Nobler Womanhood": African-American Women's Clubs in Chicago, 1890 to 1920." Journal of Women'southward History 7#iii (1995): 58–76.
• Manning, Christopher. "African Americans," in Encyclopedia of Chicago. 2007; p. 27.
• Pinderhughes, Dianne Marie. Race and ethnicity in Chicago politics: A reexamination of pluralist theory (University of Illinois Printing, 1987)
• Rivlin, Gary. Fire on the prairie: Chicago's Harold Washington and the politics of race (Holt, 1992, ISBN 0-8050-2698-iii)
• Rocksborough-Smith, Ian. Margaret T.G. Burroughs and Black Public History in Cold War Chicago. The Black Scholar, (2011), Vol. 41(3), pp. 26–42.
• Smith, Preston H. Racial democracy and the Blackness metropolis: Housing policy in postwar Chicago ( U of Minnesota Press, 2012).
• Spaulding, Norman W. History of Black oriented radio in Chicago, 1929-1963 (PhD disst. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1981.
• Spear, Allan H. Black Chicago: The making of a Negro ghetto, 1890–1920 (University of Chicago Printing, 1967, ISBN 978-0-2267-6857-1)
• Street, Paul. "The 'Best Wedlock Members': Grade, Race, Civilization, and Black Worker Militancy in Chicago's Stockyards during the 1930s." Journal of American Ethnic History (2000): 18-49. online
• Street, Paul. "The logic and limits of 'plant loyalty': black workers, white labor, and corporate racial paternalism in Chicago's stockyards, 1916-1940." Journal of social history (1996): 659-681.online
• Tuttle Jr, William Thousand. "Labor conflict and racial violence: The blackness worker in Chicago, 1894–1919." Labor History 10.3 (1969): 408–432.

External links [edit]

• African-American History Tour for the City of Chicago
• Chicago's Black Metropolis: Understanding History Through a Historic Identify, a National Park Service Teaching with Celebrated Places (TwHP) lesson programme

rossmings2001.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago

Share this post